Working Safely

This article defines safe working, the meaning of hazard and risk, hazard identification techniques, basic qualitative risk assessment, selecting or seeking advice on workplace precautions and assisting managers to prepare risk assessments. It concludes with a reminder of statutory responsibilities for health and safety at work.

The term "WORKING SAFELY" may be defined as:

"The collective actions of employees and managers to identify potential hazards in their workplace and either eliminate or control them to an acceptable level, with the common goal of preventing accidents and minimising loss to the compa

In order to work safely employees and managers alike must adopt a proactive approach to health and safety in their workplace that will require a genuine, visible commitment together with personal ownership structured around a control strategy.

A "HAZARD" is defined as "Anything with the potential to cause harm" Harm may include-injuries, ill-health or both. A "RISK" is defined as:

• "The likelihood that a particular hazard will give rise to harm (the extent of the risk covers the population affected and the consequences for them).

Risk therefore reflects both the likelihood and severity of the harm. Hazard Identification

Workplace hazards may be presented in many different forms according to their origin and their physical state. They may comprise of one or all of the following categories:

• Physical hazards - these may include excessive noise, extremes of temperature or exposure to other energy forms such as radiation and electricity. Alternatively, they may be mechanical in  nature such as traps, impact, contact and entanglement with machinery.

• Chemical hazards - these may comprise acids, alkalis, solvents, detergents or other substances known to be hazardous to health. They may produce toxic, harmful, corrosive or irritant effects when in contact with the human body.

• Biological hazards - diseases such as Hepatitis, Legionnaires, Leptospirosis and Anthrax may be contracted from humans or animals or transmitted by other media such as blood, water or the air.

Ergonomic hazards - consideration must also be given to the machine/operator interface. Hazards may include visual and postural fatigue, internal and external manual handling injuries and work related upper limb disorders associated with repetitive movement and strains.

The essential first step in risk control is to seek out and identify hazards. Relevant sources of information include:

• Legislation and supporting Approved Codes of Practice which give practical guidance and include basic minimum requirements.
• HSE guidance.
• Process information.
• Product information.
• Relevant British and international standards.
• Industry or trade association guidance.
• The personal knowledge and experience of managers and employees.
• Accident, ill health and incident data from within the organisation, from other organisations or from central sources.
• Expert advice and opinion and relevant research.

  There should be a critical appraisal of all routine and non-routine business activities.

People exposed may include not just employees but also others such as members of the public, contractors and users of the products and services. Employees and safety representatives can make a useful contribution in identifying hazards.

In the simplest cases, hazards can be identified by observation and by comparing the circumstances with the relevant information (for example single-storey premises will not present any hazards associated with stairs).

In more complex cases, measurements such as air sampling or examining the methods of machine operation may be necessary to identify the presence of hazards from chemicals or machinery.

In the most complex or high-risk cases (for example, in the chemical or nuclear industry) special techniques and systems may be needed such as hazard and operability studies (HAZOPS) and hazard analysis techniques such as event or fault-tree analysis. Specialist advice may be needed to choose and apply the most appropriate method.

  

Risk Assessment

A risk assessment is nothing more than a careful examination of what, at work, could cause harm to people, so that it can be established whether enough precautions have been taken or more should be done to prevent harm. The aim is to make sure that no one gets hurt or becomes ill.

Accidents and ill health can ruin lives and affect business too if output is lost, machinery is damaged, insurance costs increase, or if subject to prosecution.

The important things to be decided are whether a hazard is significant and whether it is covered by satisfactory precautions so that the risk is small. This must be done when assessing risks. For instance, electricity can kill but the risk of it doing so in an office environment is remote provided that 'live' components are insulated and metal casings properly earthed.

HSE Guidance - Five Steps to Risk Assessment STEP 1 - Look for the hazards

Start by walking around the workplace and looking afresh at what could reasonably be expected to cause harm. Ignore the trivial and concentrate on significant hazards that could result in serious harm or affect several people.

Ask other employees or safety representatives what they think. They may have noticed things that are not immediately obvious. Manufacturers' instructions or data sheets can also help spot hazards and put risks in their true perspective. So can accident and ill-health records.

Look for hazards that could reasonably expect to result in significant harm under the conditions in your workplace. Use the following examples as a guide:

• Slipping/tripping hazards (poorly maintained floors or stairs)
• Fire (flammable materials and sources of heat)
• Chemicals (battery acid)
• Moving parts of machinery (blades)
• Work at height (mezzanine floors)
• Ejection of material (plastic moulding)
• Pressure systems (steam boilers)
• Vehicles (fork-lifftrucks etc.)
• Electricity (poor wiring)
• Dust (grinding)
• Fumes (welding)
• Manual handling
• Noise
• Poor lighting
• Low temperature
    

STEP 2 - Decide who might be harmed, and how

Young workers, trainees, new and expectant mothers etc., who may be at particular risk

Cleaners, visitors, contractors, maintenance workers etc., who may not be in the workplace all the time
Members of the public, or people sharing the workplace, if there is a chance they could be hurt by work activities.

STEP 3 - Evaluate the risks and decide whether existing precautions are adequate or more should be done

Risk assessment requires assessment of two factors:

• Likelihood
• Severity

Likelihood

 A subjective assessment of the probability can be reduced to numbered categories as follows. (There are many versions of this technique).

• 5 = Certain or near certain 
• 4 = Very likely
• 3 = Likely
• 2 = Unlikely
• 1 = Very unlikely

Severity

This requires an assessment of the possible outcome of the hazard. Various factors will affect the severity. We can apply a similar procedure to the above and produce a numbered scale as follow:

• 5 = Death
• 4 = Major injury, disabling disease
• 3 = Lost time injury (over 3 days) 
• 2 = First aid injury
• 1 = Minor injury  

Risk Rating

Multiply the Severity number by the Likelihood number to arrive at the risk factor for each hazard. This produces a number on a scale of 1 to 25. These numbers provide an indication of priority and the extent of the risk, the higher the number the greater the priority and risk and therefore the more resources which may be needed to control the risk

This can easily be shown with the use of the risk matrix

Severity	Likelihood	5	4	3	2	1
5		25	20	15	10	5
4		20	16	12	8	4
3		15	12	9	6	3
2		10	8	6	4	2
1		5	4	3	2	1

 

As a rough guide:

16 to 25 is high risk and may require the provision of considerable resources involving special equipment, training, high levels of supervision and consideration of the most effective methods of eliminating or controlling hazards.

6 to 15 is significant risk and will require an appropriate level of resources.

1 to 5 is low risk but actions should still be taken to try to reduce these risks further if possible within reasonable limits

  

The aim is to make all risks small by adding to the precautions as necessary.

If it is found that something needs to be done, an "action list" can be drawn up to give priority to any remaining risks which are high and/or those which could affect most people. In taking action ask:

• Can we get rid of the hazard altogether?
• If not, how can the risks be controlled so that harm is unlikely?

In controlling risks, apply the principles below, if possible in the following order:

• Try a less risky option
• Prevent access to the hazard (by guarding)
• Organise work to reduce exposure to the hazard
• Issue personal protective equipment
• Provide welfare facilities (washing facilities for removal of contamination and first aid)

These are inexpensive precautions considering the risks. Failure to take simple precautions can cost a lot more if an accident does happen.

STEP 4 - Record your findings

If there are fewer than five employees an employer does not need to write anything down, though it is useful to keep a written record of what has been done. But if there are five or more people employed the employer must record the significant findings of the assessment.

This means writing down the significant hazards and conclusions. Examples might be

• Electrical installations - insulation and earthing checked and found sound
• Fume from welding - local exhaust ventilation provided and regularly checked
• Risk assessments ^-must be suitable and sufficient — this means showing that:
• A proper check was made by competent people to identify significant hazards
• Those who might be affected are identified
• All the obvious significant hazards were addressed, taking into account the number of people who could be involve

The precautions are reasonable and the remaining risk is low

STEP 5 - Review your assessment and revise it if necessary

Sooner or later new machines, substances and procedures that could lead to new hazards will be brought in. If there is any significant change, this should be added to the assessment to take account of the new hazard

Do not amend the assessment for every trivial change or for each new job, but if a new job introduces significant new hazards of its own, this must be considered in its own right and action taken to keep the risks down.

It is good practice to review the assessments from time to time to make sure that the precautions are still working effectively

Sources of Information

It is essential to keep abreast of new health and safety legislation and other developments in the health and safety field. Copies of the Acts and Regulations are sold by HMSO. These, however, generally give only a broad outline but it is useful to know the aim of the Act or Regulation.

Extensive health and safety information can be obtained from the Health and Safety Executive (HSE) telephone 01787 881165 (HSE Books), or via their website at http://www.hse.gov.uk/

Publications available include:

• Approved Codes of Practice
• Guidance
• Free leaflets on a wide variety of hazards

Information and advice on occupational health problems can be obtained from the Employment Medical Advisory Service (EMAS). The EMAS telephone numbers are available at local HSE area offices.

Local Authority Environmental Health Departments

Local authorities have responsibility for enforcing health and safety legislation in a wide variety of non-industrial premises, for example at various consumer services, launderettes, restaurants etc.

Organisations Involved in Safety

There are a number of organisations that are involved almost exclusively in Health and Safety and publish monthly journals that are valuable sources of information. These include:

• Institution of Occupational Safety and Health (IOSH) (see above)
• Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents (RoSPA)
• British Safety Council 

Publications

There are a considerable number of books both general and specific on health and safety published and available from books shops.

British and European Standards
A number of these relate to safety such as BS EN 292 Safeguarding of Machinery and BS EN 166 Eye Protection. Whilst not having legal standing they will be used as yardsticks of good safety practice

Professional Institutes/Trade Organisations

These often produce codes of practice, for example the Institute of Electrical Engineers Regulations on Electrical Installations and Portable Appliance Testing.

Consultants and Specialists

Advice can be obtained from organisations such as Universities, Colleges, and Institutions who offer consultancy services as well as specialists in various areas.

Training Boards

Training Boards specify training standards but some of their publications provide substantial information on safety matters.

Manufacturers and Suppliers
Manufacturers, suppliers and importers have a duty under HASAWA Section 6 to provide information that will enable the users of their products to be able to use them with safety.

Manufacturers of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) will meet the various British Standards relating to their products and provide the information on their levels of protection.

Trade Unions and the TUC

Unions and the TUC produce guides for Safety Representatives and many Unions also have full time Officers who deal with Health and Safety matters.

Posters and Signs
Employers must display certain statutory notices that provide information to employees. Other posters can be used to remind staff of general workplace hazards or to support specific safety campaigns. Signs remind employees of safety requirements and also draw to the attention of visitors who are not familiar with the workplace potential hazards.

Company Sources

• Company Safety Policy — a legal requirement with five or more employees in the company.
• Job descriptions — responsibilities, hazards and control measures.
• Accident statistics and records.

Health and Safety Statutory Legislation — Application to Employees

The following information is provided to remind people of their general health and safety legal responsibilities at work.

This information must also be provided at the workplace in the form of either:

• A poster prominently displayed in the workplace, entitled "Health and safety law — what you should know"; or
• An approved leaflet given to employees. The Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974 Section 7 - Duties of employees at work

1. To take reasonable care for the health and safety of themselves and others who may be affected by their acts or omissions.
2. To co-operate with their employer or any other person so far as is necessary to enable statutory duties or requirements to be complied with.

Section 8 - Duty on all persons

No person must intentionally or recklessly interfere or misuse anything provided in the interests of health, safety or welfare.

The Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1999 Regulation 14— Employees' duties
Employees must use any machinery, equipment, substance etc in accordance with training and instructions given.

Employees must report to employers or others with responsibility for health and safety of employees:

• Work situations that represent serious and immediate danger to health and safety.
• Matters that represent shortcomings in the protection arrangements for health and safety.

Any failure to observe the duties outlined above could lead to individuals being prosecuted in the criminal courts

Time Out

Hi there could be a bit of a delay to new posts as I take a time out for study, we have exams in 4 weeks I need that time to concentrate on parts I'm a bit light in, ie practical assessment, so will finish all this later
Stewart

Element 9 Physical & Psychological Health – Hazards & Control

A slightly different tack on this element as I am a bit behind on the course, but an excellent source of information is Andy Brazier's page http://healthandsafetycertificate.blogspot.com/ lots and lots of stuff here. I even bought his book for a £5 it's a bargain. Below is chapter 13 covering the relevant topic

Physical and psychological hazards

The following can cause physical and/or psychological harm:

Ionising and non-ionising radiation;

• Noise;
  
• Vibrations;
  
• High or low temperatures;
  
• High humidity;
  
• Poor ergonomics - body position;
  
• Repetitive actions;
  
• Fatigue;
  
• Stress.
  

Ionising radiation

Ionising radiation occurs as either electromagnetic rays (such as X-rays and gamma rays) or particles (such as alpha and beta particles). It occurs naturally (e.g. radon gas) but can also be produced artificially. Everyone receives some exposure to natural background radiation.

It is used or occurs in the following work settings

• Medicine (for diagnosis and treatment);
  
• Industry (for measurement and non-destructive testing);
  
• Power generation (nuclear power stations);
  
• Research and teaching.
  

Exposure to ionising radiation can alter human cells. It can cause radiation burns, poisoning and lead to cancer. It can be dangerous to unborn babies. Exposure can be directly from a source of ionising radiation. Consequences can be particularly severe when radioactive material is ingested as the exposure lasts as long as the material is inside the body.

Ionising Radiation Regulations 1999 require employers to make sure exposure is restricted as far as reasonable practicable and is kept below dose limits. Practices must be authorised by the HSE and suitable risk assessments need to be carried out prior to work commencing and reviewed at suitable intervals. Where radiation accidents are reasonably foreseeable, contingency plans need to be developed.

Employers need to appointment Radiation Protection Advisers (often an individual from a specialist company) who achieve competence in the management of risk due to ionising radiation. They should be consulted with to ensure regulations are being complied with.

The regulations specify circumstances when controlled areas need to be defined because people may be exposed to certain levels of ionising radiation within them. Where such areas are necessary it is a requirement to develop .Local Rules. And appoint Radiation Protection Supervisors who have a fundamental role in ensuring compliance with regulations and local rules. They do not need to be present at the worksite at all times, but are the first point of contact for help and advice and so need to be readily available.

People who have the potential to be exposed to certain levels of ionising radiation need to be designated as a .Classified Person. and their dose must be monitored and records kept. Action needs to be taken where someone is exposed to excessive doses of ionising radiation.

Non-ionising radiation

Non-ionising electromagnetic radiation (NIEMR) is the term used to describe the part of the electromagnetic spectrum covering two main regions

1. Optical radiation including ultraviolet (UV), visible light and infrared.
   

   Hazardous exposure may result from the sun, sunbeds, lasers and welding.
   

   
   

2. Electromagnetic fields (EMFs) including power frequencies, microwaves and radio frequencies.
   

   
   

Exposure of the eyes to UV radiation can damage the cornea and produce pain and symptoms similar to that of sand in the eye.

The effects on the skin range from redness, burning and accelerated ageing through to various types of skin cancer.

High-power lasers can cause serious damage to the eye (including blindness) as well as producing skin burns.

Exposure of people to high levels of EMFs can give rise to acute effects. The effects depend on the frequency, with low frequencies affecting the central nervous system and high frequencies causing heating effects that can lead to a rise in body temperature. In reality, these effects are extremely rare and will not occur in most day-to-day work situations

Noise at work can cause hearing loss. This may be temporary, but continued exposure, or short term exposure to very high noise can cause permanent damage.

Also, exposure to high levels of noise can cause tinnitus (ringing, whistling, buzzing or humming in the ears) and working in a noisy environment makes communication difficult and can mean people cannot hear warnings and alarms.

Noise levels are measured in Decibels (dB). Control of Noise at Work Regulations

2005 set limits for short and long term exposure and require employers to:

Assess the risks to their employees from noise at work;

• Take action to reduce the noise exposure that produces those risks;
  
• Provide employees with hearing protection if the noise exposure cannot be reduced enough using other methods;
  
• Make sure the legal limits on noise exposure are not exceeded;
  
• Provide employees with information, instruction and training;
  
• Carry out health surveillance where there is a risk to health.
  

Legal limits are defined in three categories

1. Lower exposure action values which are a daily or weekly exposure of 80 dB or peak sound pressure of 135 dB . above these levels hearing protection must be available for employees (although they do not need to use it) and information and training must be given regarding the risks and controls;
   
2. Upper exposure action values which are a daily or weekly exposure of 85 dB or peak sound pressure of 137 dB . above these levels the noise must be reduced to as low as reasonably practicable and employees must wear hearing protection;
   
3. Maximum exposure limit values which are a daily or weekly exposure of 87 dB or peak sound pressure of 140 dB . exposure must not exceed these levels.
   

A key element of the regulations is that noise levels should be reduced before

considering hearing protection. Employees have a duty to co-operate with their

employers in protecting hearing, including wearing hearing protection provided.

Reference . .Noise at work Guidance for employers on the Control of Noise at

Work Regulations 2005. available free at

http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/indg362.pdf

Vibrations

There are two main concerns regarding vibration

1. Whole body vibration
   
2. Hand arm vibration
   

Whole-body vibration is shaking or jolting of the human body through a supporting surface (usually a seat or the floor), for example when driving or riding on a vehicle along an unmade road, operating earthmoving machines or standing on a structure attached to a large, powerful, fixed machine which is impacting or vibrating. It can cause back pain, often aggravating a previous problem.

Hand-arm vibration can be caused by operating hand-held power tools (e.g. road breakers), hand-guided equipment (e.g. powered lawnmowers) or by holding materials being processed by machines (e.g. using pedestal grinders). Regular and frequent exposure to hand-arm vibration can lead to permanent health effects (occasional exposure is unlikely to cause ill health).

Symptoms include:

• Tingling and numbness in the fingers;
  
• Not being able to feel things properly;
  
• Loss of strength in the hands;
  
• The fingers going white (blanching) and becoming red and painful on recovery (particularly in the cold and wet, and probably only in the tips at first).
  
• Continued exposure can mean people cannot use their fingers properly, especially in cold conditions.
  

The Control of Vibration at Work Regulations require employers to:

Assess the vibration risk to employees;

• Decide if they are likely to be exposed above the daily exposure action value (EAV), and if so introduce a programme of controls to eliminate risk, or reduce exposure to as low; and provide health surveillance
  
• Decide if they are likely to be exposed above the daily exposure limit value (ELV) and if they are take immediate action to reduce their exposure below the limit value;
  
• Provide information and training to employees on health risks and the actions you are taking to control those risks;
  
• Consult trade union safety representative or employee representative on your proposals to control risk and to provide health surveillance;
  
• Keep a record of risk assessment and control actions;
  
• Keep health records for employees under health surveillance;
  
• Review and update your risk assessment regularly.
  

The exposure action value (EAV) is a daily amount of vibration exposure above which employers are required to take action to control exposure.

For hand-arm vibration the EAV is a daily exposure of 2.5 m/s2 A(8) and for whole body vibration 0.5 m/s2 A(8)

The exposure limit value (ELV) is the maximum amount of vibration an employee may be exposed to on any single day. For hand-arm vibration the ELV is a daily exposure of 5 m/s2 A(8) and for whole body vibration 1.15 m/s2 A(8)

Reference . .Control back-pain risks from whole-body vibration. available free at

http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/indg242.pdf

Reference . .Control the risks from hand-arm vibration. available free at

http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/indg175.pdf

Temperature

Working in conditions that are too hot can cause heat stress that can affect a person.s ability to work, potentially leading to heat exhaustion and heat stroke (can result in unconsciousness and can be fatal). Also, dehydration.

Working in cold conditions can cause cold stress and hypo-thermia.

Temperatures in the workplace are covered by the Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations 1992. Employers must provide a .reasonable. temperature in the workplace.

It is suggested that the minimum temperature in workrooms should normally be at least 16 degrees Celsius, or 13 degrees Celsius if much of the work indoors involves severe physical effort. A meaningful figure cannot be given at the upper end of the scale because other factors have an affect including radiant temperature, humidity and air velocity.

Humidity

Humidity is the amount of water vapour in air. Levels are usually quoted as relative humidity, which is the ratio between the actual amount of water vapour in the air and the maximum amount of water vapour that the air can hold at that air temperature High relative humidity (>80%) starts to prevent evaporation of sweat from the body. This evaporation is a major way of regulating body temperature. Therefore, high humidity can contribute to heat exhaustion and heat stroke.

Humidity is particularly a concern when people are required to wear extra clothing (i.e. in the form of personal protective equipment PPE). In this case the humidity inside clothing can be significantly higher than outside.

Humidity is covered by the Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations 1992.

Managing the risks associated with physical hazards

Ergonomics

Ergonomics is the application of scientific information concerning humans to the design of objects, systems and environment for human use. The aim is to use this information to ensure comfort, efficiency, productivity and safety. Ergonomics comes into everything which involves people. In a phrase, the job must .fit the person. in all respects, and the work situation should not compromise human capabilities and limitations.

Ergonomics covers anatomy, physiology and psychology.

Neck and back pain

Neck and back pain can arise in many situations, but the following are known to cause problems:

• Heavy manual labour;
  
• Manual handling in awkward places;
  
• Repetitive tasks;
  
• Sitting at a workstation for a long time (especially if not set up properly);
  
• Stooping, bending over or crouching (poor posture);
  
• Pushing, pulling or dragging excessive loads;
  
• Stretching, twisting and reaching;
  
• Prolonged periods in one position, leading to postural strain;
  
• Situations where the whole body is subjected to vibration, jolting and jarring (including driving long distances or over rough ground).
  

As with many ill health conditions, some people are more susceptible to back pain than others.

HSE have dedicated web pages for neck and back pain at

http://www.hse.gov.uk/msd/backpain/index.htm

Work related upper limb disorders (WRULD)

WRULD, sometimes known as repetitive strain injury are problems with the shoulder and arm, including the forearm, elbow, wrist, hand and fingers, and can include neck pain. Any type of work that involves a worker using their arms to carry out tasks can lead to WRULDs, although they are frequently associated with computer use and assembly work. Symptoms include tenderness, aches and pain, stiffness, weakness, tingling, numbness, cramp and swelling.

• Risk factors include:
  
• Repeating an action;
  
• Uncomfortable working position;
  
• Using a lot of force;
  
• Carrying out a task for a long period of time;
  
• Poor working environment;
  
• Psychosocial issues (lack of control or status).
  

Finding solutions is not always easy, and it is important to recognise that people are different sizes, have different abilities and some are more susceptible due to disabilities. Certainly workstation and job design can have a significant impact, but behaviours are equally important, including posture, exercise and taking breaks. People need to be informed of the risks and how to minimise them. If someone contracts WRULD it may be sufficient for them to change their working methods. However, in some cases medical treatment and rehabilitation may be required.

Reference- Aching arms (or RSI) in small businesses, available free at

http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/indg171.pdf

Display screen equipment (DSE)

Poor physical layout of DSE workstations can cause WRULD. Also, screen glare and poor image quality can contribute to tired or sore eyes and headaches (especially for people who wear contact lenses or bi-focal glasses). People using

DSE can suffer from stress due to the expected pace of work or anxiety about new technology.

There is no evidence to suggest radiation from screens is a problem, even for pregnant women. A few people claim skin problems, but this is more likely to be with air quality (that may be affected by electrical equipment) rather than the DSE itself. A small number of epileptics may have problems.

The Health and Safety (Display Screen Equipment) Regulations 1992 require that operators or users have:

• Adequate training and information;
  
• Proper breaks or changes of activity;
  
• Work stations suitable for them which meet, where necessary, the standards in the schedule;
  
• Eye tests if they request them.
  

There are many devices available that are designed to minimise health impacts from using DSE. They include specialised computer mice, document holders and arm rests. As with WRULD, whilst these can assist it is often behaviour (combined with well design standard DSE) that can have the greatest impact.

Reference . .Working with VDUs. available free at

http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/indg36.pdf

Working environment

Welfare and hygiene

People cannot remain healthy at work if their basic welfare needs are not catered for. This includes the following:

• Toilets;
  
• Facilities to wash (including showers where necessary);
  
• Drinking water supply;
  
• Places to eat;
  
• Places to change and store clothes (if work clothes are required);
  
• Rest facilities for pregnant women (i.e. reasonably practicable).
  

It is important to recognise that people eating with dirty hands can result in them ingesting hazardous materials. Also, that dirty clothes can mean people taking hazardous materials into their car and possibly home to their family.

Facilities have to be kept clean, in good condition and supplied with materials (e.g. toilet paper, soap). Also, rooms need to be well ventilated and at a reasonable temperature (not too hot or cold).

These requirements are all covered by the Workplace (Health, Safety and Welfare) Regulations 1992.

A safe place to work

The following fall into the category of general safety:

• Lighting must be sufficient for people to work safely;
  
• People need enough space. As a minimum there should be 11m3 per person (with any height above 3m being considered as 3m for this calculation);
  
• Floors and traffic routes must be sound and strong enough. They must not have holes, not be slippery or obstructed;
  
• Handrails must be provided for stairways;
  
• Clear/glass doors must be arranged so people are not liable to walk into them, and they need to be protected against breaking;
  
• It must be possible to clean windows safely;
  
• Doors that swing both ways must allow people to see through so people behind them are not hurt;
  
• Escalators and moving walkways must be of safe design and condition, and have emergency stop buttons.
  

Reference: Workplace health, safety and welfare - a short guide for managers, available free at

http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/indg244.pdf

Stress

Stress is the adverse reaction people have to excessive pressures or other types of demand placed on them. Whilst pressure is an integral part of work and helps to keep people motivated, when it is excessive it can lead to stress. Stress causes chemicals to be released into the body that impact on how the body works. Overtime this can cause significant health problems. Also, stress affects peoples. concentration, information processing and decision making, which undermines their performance and can cause them to commit errors or behave unsafely.

The primary sources of stress at work include:

• High demands, excessive workload, unhealthy work patterns and working poor environment;
  
• Lack of control, no say in the way they do their work;
  
• Lack of support, lack of encouragement and resources from the organisation;
  
• Poor relationship, tension with management or colleagues and a failure to deal with unacceptable behaviour such as bullying;
  
• Poorly defined roles .people not understanding their responsibilities or the scope of their job;
  
• Poorly managed change . people not considered in the change management process or not given sufficient information about what is happening or why.
  

Organisations should have systems in place to manage stress. They should include a policy, organisation and arrangements to identify potential stress (through risk assessment), actual stress (sickness rates) and deal with it. Proactive monitoring of stress, often through the use of staff surveys, should be part of the arrangements. The HSE have a website dedicated to stress at

http://www.hse.gov.uk/stress/index.htm

Fatigue

Fatigue occurs when people get very tired over a long time and/or are unable to rest. It significantly increases the likelihood of human error and over the long term can cause of contribute to stress (with subsequent health problems). Poor working conditions (e.g. noise, lighting, DSE) tend to increase levels of fatigue.

Shift and night work

Shift and night workers are particularly prone to fatigue because their workingpatterns differ from natural .circadian rhythms,. meaning they have to be awake when their body wants to be asleep. They are known to be prone to stomach, heart and psychological problems. Also, working unusual hours can impact on relationships causing stress.

People working at night are likely to be tired and so prone to errors. Also, it is likely to be dark and there is usually less support (e.g. technical), which can create problems.

Good shift patterns and controls over hours actually worked can minimise fatigue.

Plenty of exercise, a healthy diet and getting sleep whenever possible are particularly important for shift and night workers to minimise the risks due to their patterns of work.

Typical Examination Questions based on Element 8

``1.	Outline the factors that may affect the efficiency of a local exhaust ventilation (LEV) system.	(8)
	Factors can include: Blocked filters. Hood placed too far from source of contaminant. Lack of maintenance and testing. Unauthorised alterations. Wear or corrosion of fan blades. Incorrect settings. System overwhelmed by increase in contaminant. Inadequate design
2.	Identify the information that should be included on a hazard data sheet supplied with a hazardous substance.	(8)
	Information should include: The name of the substance. It's chemical properties and composition. The nature of hazards. Relevant standards (e.g. Occupational exposure limits). Precautions to be observed in its transport, handling and use. Measures to take in an emergency (e.g. spillage or accidental exposure) including first-aid treatment and disposal requirements.
3.	a) List the elements of a hierarchy for the control of airborne contaminant (b) Outline TWO reasons why a cartridge-type respirator may in practice fail to provide a sufficient level of protection.	(6) (2)
	Control measures in correct order of use are: Elimination of the substance or its substitution with something less harmful. Possibility of reducing exposure by introducing changes in working methods (e.g. use of brush instead of spray or, pellets instead of dust), or to work patterns. Segregation or enclosure of the process and provision of LEV). Lastly, the provision of PPE. Reasons include: Poor fit of the respirator, either because of the use of other PPE at the same time or facial hair. The use of incorrect cartridge. The cartridge not being properly fitted. Failure to change the cartridge at appropriate intervals. Inadequate storage facilities leading to respirator being damaged or contaminated.
4.	(a) Describe the typical symptoms of occupational dermatitis. (b)State the factors that could affect the likelihood of dermatitis occurring in workers handling dermatitic substances. (6)	(2) (6)
	Symptoms are reddening, blistering and cracking of the skin with a possibility of infection and ulceration. Factors include; the nature of the agent, concentration levels and the duration and frequency of exposure when dermatitis substances are handled. Additional factors that could increase the risks include cuts and abrasions that would allow the chemical to be absorbed more readily. Existing skin conditions, the type of skin and its sensitivity, the specific site of skin contact, poor personal hygiene and the misuse of protective measures are other factors
5.	Outline the Factors to be considered in the selection of respiratory equipment for persons carrying out welding activities
	Factors to be considered include: The nature and concentration of contaminants released from the welding process. The material to be welded including any surface coatings (eg lead paint) and the constituents of the filler materials must all be assessed. Once this has been done a range of suitable respiratory protective equipment that would offer adequate protection can be considered. In doing so consideration would be given to the compatibility of the equipment with the work to be done and any other PPE, ergonomic considerations (Bulkiness, comfort etc.), the level of training required, the duration and use, the ease of maintenance and the costs
6.	(a) Define the term 'target organ' within the context of occupational health. (b) Outline the personal hygiene practices that should be followed to reduce the risk of ingestion of a hazardous substance.	(2) (6)
	(a)Target organs are , the organs of the human body upon which a toxic material exerts it effort. (b) Personal hygiene practices would include, washing hands before eating , the avoidance of eating or drinking and smoking in the workplace, utilising facilities for contaminated clothing, appropriate use of gloves and avoiding hand to mouth contact

Element 8 Chemical and Biological Health

Element 8 cover the hazards and the control of associated with using chemicals or being exposed to biological substances.

The main regulations that cover these activities are COSHH Control of Substances Hazardous to Health 2002 (as amended 2004), there are others such as CHIP (The Chemicals (Hazards and Packaging for supply) Regulations 2002), Control of Asbestos Regulations 2006 and under the HSWA'74 manufactures have a duty to provide Material Data Safety Sheet (MSDS),

MSDS must be provided by the manufacturer of chemical substances, these must contain details of the chemical makeup generally has to be categorised in to either

• Very toxic;
  
• Toxic;
  
• Harmful;
  
• Corrosive;
  
• Irritant;
  
• Sensitising;
  
• Carcinogenic;
  
• Mutagenic;
  
• Toxic for reproduction.
  

Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) should be available for all hazardous chemicals being used or produced. As well as the classification, the sheets should include chemical and physical properties, precautions for use, first aid and fire fighting.

Use of chemicals in the workplace, the employer has a duty to assess the effects of using chemical in a work process both from a health and a environmental viewpoint.

Control measures such as PPE must only be used as a last resort, elimination of the hazard must get top priority, where this is not possible the exposure limits must be measured There are indicated level contained in the COSHH for the Maximum Exposure Limits and the Occupational Exposure Standards which place the obligation on an employer that the levels of any chemicals should not exceed the Workplace Exposure Limit (WEL). In the UK WEL's are set for a number of substances which are hazardous to health. They are the maximum concentrations of an airborne substance, averaged over a reference period (15 minutes for short term and 8 hours for long term exposure), to which employees may be exposed by inhalation.

A common belief that inert dusts are not an issue but theses so called non-toxic dusts can cause health affects if inhaled, and so have a WEL of 10 mg/m3

HSE Guidance Note EH 40 lists all substances that have been given a WEL along with methods of assessment of control measures.

In the risk assessment consideration should be given to the possible routes into the body and the type of effect and what the

Target organs

• Respiratory system
  
• Blood
  
• Urinary System
  
• Cardiovascular System
  

Possible routes into the body

Inhalation- through breathing of toxic or harmful fumes can affect, lungs, heart, liver

• Inhalation - Breathing in probably the most common path
  
• Ingested by eating or drinking - if present in food or drink, or is on some one's hands when they are eating or put their hand in their mouth; can affect liver, kidneys
  
• In contact with the skin or eyes;
  
• Absorbed through the skin - can affect all internal organs;
  
• Injected into the body - includes accidental puncture wounds with a contaminated item.
  

The effects can be

• Local - only affect the part of the body exposed (skin, eyes, mouth, stomach, lungs);
  
• Systemic - spread through the body (blood, bones, liver, nervous system);
  
• Cumulative - may not have an effect on first exposure, but repeated exposure causes problems.
  

COSHH Assessments

Step 1 Assess the risks

Assess the risks to health from hazardous substances used in or created by the workplace activities.


Step 2 Decide what precautions are needed

They must not carry out work which could expose anyone to hazardous substances without first considering the risks and the necessary precautions, and what else they need to do to comply with COSHH.

Step 3
Prevent or adequately control exposure


They must prevent employees being exposed to hazardous substances. Where preventing exposure is not reasonably practicable, then they must adequately control it.

Step 4
Ensure that control measures are used and maintained

sure that control measures are used and maintained properly and that safety procedures are followed.


Step 5
Monitor the exposure

Monitor the exposure of employees to hazardous substances, if necessary.


Step 6 Carry out appropriate health surveillance

Carry out appropriate health surveillance where your assessment has shown this is necessary or where COSHH sets specific requirements.

Step 7
Prepare plans and procedures to deal with accidents, incidents and emergencies

Prepare plans and procedures to deal with accidents, incidents and emergencies involving hazardous substances, where necessary.


Step 8
Ensure employees are properly informed, trained and supervised

They should provide their employees with suitable and sufficient information, instruction and training.

Although the eight steps only mention employees the regulations also cover anyone who works in the premises, in the case of the Department this includes, for example, students and contractors.

PPE

The employer must provide where necessary any personnel protective equipment, he is not allowed to charge for this, it must be fit for purpose and provide adequate protection against any remaining hazards that have been identified in either or both the risk and cosh assessments.

Respiratory equipment

To protect against Gases, dusts, vapours, fumes smoke aerosols.

Types

Respirators - face masks, powered respirators' dust masks etc

Breathing Apparatus - air fed hoods, self contained units

Dust respirators

Gloves

Overalls, which may include full body protection and enclosed suits

Work place Hygiene

Hygiene in the work place should be encouraged at all levels not just when handling using chemicals, but an employer must pay particular attention to the types of facilities provided when handling or using chemicals in a process. They must provide where required suitable areas for removal of contaminated clothing and PPE, adequate messing and washing facilities away from any possible contamination